examination preparation

It is generally agreed that society benefits from the work of its members. Compare the contributions of artists to society with the contributions of scientists to society. Which type of contribution do you think is valued more by your society? Give specific reasons to support your answer.

From my everyday experience and observation I think that artists as well as scientists brings many benefits to society. It is a controversial question weather the contributions of artists are more or less then the contributions of scientists to the society. For several reasons, which I will mention bellow, I think that both types are valuable, priceless and irreplaceable for every society.

The contributions of artists to the society are very essential. Art forms people's spiritual sense, their views and personalities. People learn history, the traditions of their country trough the art. We also watch movies that entertain and at the same time extend our range of interests.  Another important aspect of this is that art is an ancient means of communication. In old times people depicted the herds of mammoths on the walls of their caves. They performed different rituals around the fireplace asking their gods for health, good harvest and weather. Our language is a result of people's need to communicate.

From the other side, the contribution of scientists is could not be exaggerated. All humankind is indebted to the scientists because of their work and achievements. Scientists make our life easier. We have cars and airplanes to move fast from one place to another. We have microwaves and a bunch of preprocessed food to make the cooking much easier. We have different devices that simplify all we do. Finally, scientists are making great achievements in medicine that make our life longer and happier. Nowadays people have a great opportunity to do many things faster by use of computers.

To sup up, I believe that artists nourish our souls when scientists and technology feed our minds. So, we can not eliminate or underestimate one of them.

We all work or will work in our jobs with many different kinds of people. In your opinion, what are some important characteristics of a co-worker (someone you work closely with)? Use reasons and specific examples to explain why these characteristics are important.

     

A large number of people spend most of their time  at work. Our life is divided into three equal parts: 8 hours - sleep, 8 hours - work, 8 hours - family time. So, in the most cases, one's co-worker plays an important role in one's life. From my opinion, the essential characteristics of a co-worker are the following.

First of all, a person who works closely with me must like his job. I think it is very important for a person to feel satisfaction with his job. My husband is a software developer. He is fond of his job and people enjoy working with him because they see how many energy he puts into his job.

Second of all, my co-worker must be persistent and never give up. I like when people who came across a problem try to solve it, find a good decision instead of looking for another person to hand it over. Another important aspect of this is that a good worker should always ask himself  "What can be improved?" and suggests new solutions.

In addition, he must be a good team player. In the modern world good communication skills and the ability to work in a team are among the common position requirements. Personally, I think it is great to help each other, share new ideas, develop new solutions, etc. It helps to create a team spirit and improve a labor productivity.

Finally, my co-worker must be punctual. He or she should finish the job on time  I think that It is unacceptable to make the rest of a team wait while a person finishes his or her job. Also, my "ideal co-worker" should always be ready to offer his or her help and be supportive.

To summarize, I think if a co-worker possesses all of these qualities mentioned above he can make work with him really enjoyable and productive.

Some universities require students to take classes in many subjects. Other universities require students to specialize in one subject. Which is better? Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

I think the issue about what is better to specialize in many subjects or choose the one is a controversial one. Each option has its own advantages and disadvantages. Some people prefer to specialize in one subject and know it very well. However, others prefer to extend their range of interests and specialize in many subjects but not in detail. Bellow I will give reasons to support my position.

From the one side, learning something in detail brings many benefits. First of all, people gain more knowledge and experience in this area. So, after graduation they are well prepared for their further career in this field. Second of all, they do not spend their precious time on other subjects. This gives them the opportunity to focus on one subject.

From the other side, people who specialize in many subjects have more options to choose from. For example, if a person does not make a decision about what he is going to do after graduation it is a very good chance for him to try many fields of study and make the right decision. In addition to this practical benefit a person have the opportunity to extend his range of interests, his communication skills and have better conceptions of things around. Also, a person has a better chance to choose what he really likes to do and make self-realization.

To sup up, I think that every person should have a chance to choose. Does he want to specialize in one subject or he wants to take classes in many subjects.

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Classmates are a more important influence than parents on a child’s success in school. Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

I can not completely agree with the statement that classmates are a more important influence than parents on a child's success in school. In this essay I will first focus on the reasons why I agree with this statement and then list a few points why from my opinion in some cases is not true.

From the one side, classmates have a significant influence on child's behavior and his or her success in school. First of all, children spend much time at school. Classmates have many things in common such as age, interests, homework and classes after all. So, they discuss their impressions about a new teacher, solve problems together, learn their homework, gain new knowledge and experience and even make their own discoveries. Sharing all these makes them closer. Some of them become friends and they spend after-school time together. In addition friends tend to copy each other's habits and manners. For instance, my little sister became friends with the girl who did not have good grades at school at that time. It does not mean she could not have better grades; she just had many friends who did not care about their grades. So, when they started to spend their time together and share their interests, girl's grades improved. They did their homework together, shared their dreams and exciting moments. From this point I must agree that classmates can change child’s attitude towards school.

From the other side, parents have a great influence on children' success in school too. For example if parents show an interest in their child's progress and talk to him or her about the importance of learning I think their child will listen to them and do his or her best.

Personally, I believe that relationships between parents and a child play an essential role in child's success in school. If these relationships are close and wholehearted I am sure that parents should not be afraid of bad influence from the outside.

   

In some countries, people are no longer allowed to smoke in many public places and office buildings. Do you think this is a good rule or a bad rule? Use specific reasons and details to support your position.

The question about whether people should be allowed to smoke in public places is the one that is open for debate. All people can be divided on two groups: smokers and not smokers. Smokers agree that they do not benefit the society by smoking, but think that they should have some special places in office buildings or public places where they can smoke. However, others believe that smokers should not be allowed to smoke in any places except their own apartments. Personally, I completely agree with the last opinion. For the following reasons, which I will mention bellow, I think that smokers should not contaminate the air other people breathe.

The first reason for this is that smokers not only damage their own health but actually cause damage to the health of others. Scientists say that people who do not smoke, but regular breathe in the smoke of cigarettes, so-called "passive smokers", poison their health more then smokers themselves. For example, when I was a student I lived with the roommate who was a chain smoker. First I did not know what to do, I smelled that smoke everywhere and I could not breathe freely, but in a few weeks I got used to it. Now I think that I was a real smoker because of the fact that I regularly breathed in so much smoke.

Second of all, I think that people should not be allowed to smoke in public places and in office buildings because this rule will force them to quit. Smokers will have to quit smoking or at least will do it less often and these benefits all people smokers as well as not smokers.

Finally, smoking in public places contributes to the growth of number of smokers because many people seeing smokers may feel a desire to take a cigarette and join them. The advertisement of cigarettes is already prohibited by the law and I think it is a good sign because many people become smokers only because they see other people do it.

In conclusion, I think that this rule will benefit the society of every country and our world on the whole.

In general, people are living longer now. Discuss the causes of this phenomenon.

Use specific reasons and details to develop your essay.

Statistics shows that people are living longer now. There are several reasons for this.  I will point out a few of them below.

First of all, a few hundred years ago mankind suffered from many different kinds of diseases which are very well cured now. The achievements of contemporary medicine allow people to live with artificial arms, hands, legs and even hearts. Recently I read a few articles in the magazines about a man with an implanted artificial heart and a woman who had an implanted chipset in her head to make her happier. Additionally, many viruses are defeated nowadays with the modern vaccines and many pills help us to relief pain.

Second of all, the conditions of live are greatly improved. A man chiefly does not have to sleep on the wet and cold ground, defense himself from predators in the wild forests and fight for his life. The wide extension of fast food stands, buffets and restaurants gives people the oppotunity to have full and nutritious meal whenever they need to.

Many entertaining centers offer a wide variety of services where you can leave your troubles behind and just relax.

All of these things mentioned above allow people to maintain healthy life, spend more time with his family and friends and make their life longer and happier.

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Watching television is bad for children. Use specific details and examples to support your answer.

Some parents believe that watching television is bad for their children. So, they try to restrict their children from watching TV. However, other parents think that there is nothing bad in watching TV. Personally, I think that watching TV brings children only benefits unless they spend in front of TV set less then a couple of hours daily. For the following reasons, which I will mention bellow, I believe that television plays an essential role in child's development.

First of all, television helps a child to extent his or her range of interests. Children can find out many new things and make many exiting discoveries for themselves. In addition to these practical benefits television improves children's vocabulary, their memory and gives them the opportunity to gain more knowledge. I think it is very essential for a child. Of cause, someone can say that there are plenty of different recourses of information such as books and teachers. But, I think, in our modern world children  must learn faster and use all contemporary technology in order to succeed.

Second of all, watching cognitive programs helps children to learn more about wild life, our environment and about the importance of preserving our forest and wild animals that live there.

Scientists say that a child should not watch TV more then 40 minutes successively. For example, my mother always made us have a break after watching TV more then half an hour and let our eyes rest for several minutes before turning on the TV again. I think it is the best solution.

To sum up, I believe that television gives children and all people the opportunity to learn what can not be learn from books. Television and movies in particular allow people to feel the reality and see what they will most likely not be able to see in their lives. Personally, when I was a child I liked to watch cognitive programs about wild animals. Unfortunately, my family had only one TV, but these programs were the only ones we all wanted to watch. So, we gathered in our living room and watched them in complete silence and I always remember those moments with a smile on my face.

The 21st century has begun. What changes do you think this new century will bring? Use examples and details in your answer.

Man, through the ages, has undergone many changes from the time when he depicted a herd of mammoths on the walls of his cave to these days when he can create beautiful pictures and even make coffee by use of computer technologies without leaving his favorite chair. The 20th century made huge steps in developing computer technologies and reached many goals that made our life much easier. What should we expect in the 21st century?

First of all, I think that the pace of our life will speed up: we will move faster from one place to another, from one continent to another using high speed jet airplanes. Second of all, I believe that we will be able to do many things that take much time now without leaving our house. Computers will be everywhere including out clothes. Many people will have chips and mini computers inserted in their heads to hold huge amount of information and have a quick access to it.

But what will be the most amazing thing in the 21st century is the flights to the outer space and Mars that will be available to all people. Scientists say that Mars has many things similar to the Earth's. Moreover, they say that with the help of modern technology people can artificially create conditions that will allow people to live there on the constant basis.

To sum up, I am sure that many amazing changes will be brought by the 21st century. Furthermore, I think that with the help of the contemporary technologies people can do many things that were even difficult to imagine a century ago. So, nowadays it is rather difficult and even impossible to imagine all changes that will happen in the next decades.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb

Types Of Nouns

There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalise others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.

If you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

Proper Nouns

You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun

Common Nouns

A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:

According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.

All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.

I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.

Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:

The judge handed the files to the clerk.

Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.

The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.

Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:

Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.

Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.

Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.

Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.

Countable Nouns

A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:

We painted the table red and the chairs blue.

Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.

Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.

The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.

Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.

Non-Countable Nouns

A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:

Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.

The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.

Oxygen is essential to human life.

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."

We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.

You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.

The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.

Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."

The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.

You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.

Gravel is more expensive than I thought.

Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."

Collective Nouns

A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:

The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.

The collective noun "flock" takes the singular verb "spends."

The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.

In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular compound verb "is dining."

The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.

Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."

The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular compound verb "was startled."

 What is a Pronoun?

A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.

Personal Pronouns

A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.

Subjective Personal Pronouns

A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:

I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.

You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

He stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.

When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.

After many years, they returned to their homeland.

We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.

It is on the counter.

Are you the delegates from Malagawatch?

Objective Personal Pronouns

An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun:

Seamus stole the selkie's skin and forced her to live with him.

The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb "forced" and the objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."

After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.

The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw."

The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."

In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb "address."

Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market.

Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."

Give the list to me.

Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to."

I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.

Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to."

Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.

Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see."

Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:

The smallest gift is mine.

Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.

This is yours.

Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.

His is on the kitchen counter.

In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.

Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.

In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.

Ours is the green one on the corner.

Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:

This must not continue.

Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."

This is puny; that is the tree I want.

In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.

Three customers wanted these.

Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted."

Interrogative Pronouns

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:

Which wants to see the dentist first?

"Which" is the subject of the sentence.

Who wrote the novel Rockbound?

Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.

Whom do you think we should invite?

In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."

To whom do you wish to speak?

Here the interrogative pronoun "whom " is the object of the preposition "to."

Who will meet the delegates at the train station?

In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet."

To whom did you give the paper?

In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."

What did she say?

Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."

Relative Pronouns

You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.

You may invite whomever you like to the party.

The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite."

The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.

In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote." This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate."

In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.

In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."

Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.

Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke."

The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet.

In this example "which" acts as the subject of the compound verb "was left" and introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."

I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.

Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."

Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:

Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.

Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited."

The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.

In this example, "everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."

We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.

In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of the verb "donated."

Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.

Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found."

Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.

In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."

Give a registration package to each.

Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."

Reflexive Pronouns

You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:

Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.

The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work.

After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.

Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.

Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.

Intensive Pronouns

An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.

The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.

They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.

What Is An Adjective?

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:

The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.

Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.

The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.

The coal mines are dark and dank.

Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.

A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.

The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence

Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.

for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Grammarians also consider articles ("the," "a," "an") to be adjectives.

Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective ("my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their") is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "my" modifies "assignment" and the noun phrase "my assignment" functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form "mine" is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.

What is your phone number.

Here the possessive adjective "your" is used to modify the noun phrase "phone number"; the entire noun phrase "your phone number" is a subject complement. Note that the possessive pronoun form "yours" is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase.

The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.

In this example, the possessive adjective "his" modifies the noun phrase "favourite type of bread" and the entire noun phrase "his favourite type of bread" is the direct object of the verb "sold."

After many years, she returned to her homeland.

Here the possessive adjective "her" modifies the noun "homeland" and the noun phrase "her homeland" is the object of the preposition "to." Note also that the form "hers" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

We have lost our way in this wood.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "our" modifies "way" and the noun phrase "our way" is the direct object of the compound verb "have lost". Note that the possessive pronoun form "ours" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

In many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents.

Here the possessive adjective "their" modifies "parents" and the noun phrase "their parents" is the object of the preposition "by." Note that the possessive pronoun form "theirs" is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard.

In this sentence, the possessive adjective "its" modifies "ball" and the noun phrase "its ball" is the object of the verb "chased." Note that "its" is the possessive adjective and "it's" is a contraction for "it is."

Demonstrative Adjectives

The demonstrative adjectives "this," "these," "that," "those," and "what" are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:

When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.

In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective "that" modifies the noun "cord" and the noun phrase "that cord" is the object of the preposition "over."

This apartment needs to be fumigated.

Here "this" modifies "apartment" and the noun phrase "this apartment" is the subject of the sentence.

Even though my friend preferred those plates, I bought these.

In the subordinate clause, "those" modifies "plates" and the noun phrase "those plates" is the object of the verb "preferred." In the independent clause, "these" is the direct object of the verb "bought."
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective ("which" or "what") is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):

Which plants should be watered twice a week?

Like other adjectives, "which" can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, "which" modifies "plants" and the noun phrase "which plants" is the subject of the compound verb "should be watered":

What book are you reading?

In this sentence, "what" modifies "book" and the noun phrase "what book" is the direct object of the compound verb "are reading."

Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:

Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

The indefinite adjective "many" modifies the noun "people" and the noun phrase "many people" is the subject of the sentence.

I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.

The indefinite adjective "any" modifies the noun "mail" and the noun phrase "any mail" is the direct object of the compound verb "will send."

They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.

In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun "goldfish" and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb "found":

The title of Kelly's favorite game is "All dogs go to heaven."

Here the indefinite pronoun "all" modifies "dogs" and the full title is a subject complement.

Adjectives

Select from the following GUIDE Home Page INDEX Principles of Composition QUIZZES Sentence Parts and Functions . . . . adjectives . . . . adverbs . . . . conjunctions . . . . determiners . . . . interjections . . . . nouns . . . . objects . . . . prepositions . . . . pronouns . . . . subjects . . . . verbs Abbreviations Articles and Determiners Auxiliary Verbs Bw 2 Independent Clauses Capitalization Cases -- of pronouns Clauses -- Essential Bldg Blocks Composition Compound Nouns and Modifiers Concise Sentences Confusable Words Confusion -- Sources, Remedies Diagramming Sentences Essay Types Fragments Frequently Asked Questions Grammarlogs -- answers GrammarPoll Italics and Underlining Modifier Placement Objects -- dir., indirect Paragraph Development Parallel Structures Passive vs Active Voice Phrases Plague Words & Phrases Plurals Possessives Primer Language Pronouns, Antcdnt Agrmnt PUNCTUATION . . . . apostrophes . . . . brackets . . . . colons . . . . commas . . . . dashes . . . . ellipses . . . . exclamation marks . . . . hyphens . . . . parentheses . . . . periods . . . . question marks . . . . quotation marks . . . . semicolons . . . . slashes Powerpoint Presentations Run-on Sentences Search Engine Sentence Combining Sentence Variety and Types Spelling Rules and Quizzes Subjects Subject-Verb Agreement Tense Sequence Transitions, Coherence Unbiased Language Using Numbers, Making Lists Verbs and Verbals Vocabulary Builders

Definition

Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives.

• the tall professor
• the lugubrious lieutenant
• a solid commitment
• a month's pay
• a six-year-old child
• the unhappiest, richest man

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer. If an adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who is keeping my family in the poorhouse.
Before getting into other usage considerations, one general note about the use — or over-use — of adjectives: Adjectives are frail; don't ask them to do more work than they should. Let your broad-shouldered verbs and nouns do the hard work of description. Be particularly cautious in your use of adjectives that don't have much to say in the first place: interesting, beautiful, lovely, exciting. It is your job as a writer to create beauty and excitement and interest, and when you simply insist on its presence without showing it to your reader — well, you're convincing no one.
Consider the uses of modifiers in this adjectivally rich paragraph from Thomas Wolfe's Look Homeward, Angel. (Charles Scribner's, 1929, p. 69.) Adjectives are highlighted in this color; participles, verb forms acting as adjectives, are highlighted in this blue. Some people would argue that words that are part of a name — like "East India Tea House — are not really adjectival and that possessive nouns — father's, farmer's — are not technically adjectives, but we've included them in our analysis of Wolfe's text.

He remembered yet the East India Tea House at the Fair, the sandalwood, the turbans, and the robes, the cool interior and the smell of India tea; and he had felt now the nostalgic thrill of dew-wet mornings in Spring, the cherry scent, the cool clarion earth, the wet loaminess of the garden, the pungent breakfast smells and the floating snow of blossoms. He knew the inchoate sharp excitement of hot dandelions in young earth; in July, of watermelons bedded in sweet hay, inside a farmer's covered wagon; of cantaloupe and crated peaches; and the scent of orange rind, bitter-sweet, before a fire of coals. He knew the good male smell of his father's sitting-room; of the smooth worn leather sofa, with the gaping horse-hair rent; of the blistered varnished wood upon the hearth; of the heated calf-skin bindings; of the flat moist plug of apple tobacco, stuck with a red flag; of wood-smoke and burnt leaves in October; of the brown tired autumn earth; of honey-suckle at night; of warm nasturtiums, of a clean ruddy farmer who comes weekly with printed butter, eggs, and milk; of fat limp underdone bacon and of coffee; of a bakery-oven in the wind; of large deep-hued stringbeans smoking-hot and seasoned well with salt and butter; of a room of old pine boards in which books and carpets have been stored, long closed; of Concord grapes in their long white baskets.

An abundance of adjectives like this would be uncommon in contemporary prose. Whether we have lost something or not is left up to you.

Position of Adjectives

Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category. (See Below.) When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody — are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun:

Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished.
Something wicked this way comes.

And there are certain adjectives that, in combination with certain words, are always "postpositive" (coming after the thing they modify):

The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy fortune, lives in New York proper.

See, also, the note on a- adjectives, below, for the position of such words as "ablaze, aloof, aghast."

Degrees of Adjectives

Adjectives can express degrees of modification:

• Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town.

The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable.

Click on the "scary bear" to read and hear George Newall's "Unpack Your Adjectives" (from Scholastic Rock, 1975). Schoolhouse Rock® and its characters and other elements are trademarks and service marks of American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. Used with permission.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
rich	richer	richest
lovely	lovelier	loveliest
beautiful	more beautiful	most beautiful

Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:

Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
little	less	least
much many some	more	most
far	further	furthest

Be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison — unique, for instance — although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can have a fuller figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be more pregnant than another have never been nine-months pregnant with twins.

Grammar's Response

According to Bryan Garner, "complete" is one of those adjectives that does not admit of comparative degrees. We could say, however, "more nearly complete." I am sure that I have not been consistent in my application of this principle in the Guide (I can hear myself, now, saying something like "less adequate" or "more preferable" or "less fatal"). Other adjectives that Garner would include in this list are as follows:

absolute	impossible	principal
adequate	inevitable	stationary
chief	irrevocable	sufficient
complete	main	unanimous
devoid	manifest	unavoidable
entire	minor	unbroken
fatal	paramount	unique
final	perpetual	universal
ideal	preferable	whole

From The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Styleby Bryan Garner. Copyright 1995 by Bryan A. Garner. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc., www.oup-usa.org, and used with the gracious consent of Oxford University Press.

Be careful, also, not to use more along with a comparative adjective formed with -er nor to use most along with a superlative adjective formed with -est (e.g., do not write that something is more heavier or most heaviest).
The as — as construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality:

• He is as foolish as he is large.
• She is as bright as her mother.

Premodifiers with Degrees of Adjectives

Both adverbs and adjectives in their comparative and superlative forms can be accompanied by premodifiers, single words and phrases, that intensify the degree.

• We were a lot more careful this time.
• He works a lot less carefully than the other jeweler in town.
• We like his work so much better.
• You'll get your watch back all the faster.

The same process can be used to downplay the degree:

• The weather this week has been somewhat better.
• He approaches his schoolwork a little less industriously than his brother does.

And sometimes a set phrase, usually an informal noun phrase, is used for this purpose:

• He arrived a whole lot sooner than we expected.
• That's a heck of a lot better.

If the intensifier very accompanies the superlative, a determiner is also required:

• She is wearing her very finest outfit for the interview.
• They're doing the very best they can.

Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner and the thing being modified is understood:

• Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most.
• The quicker you finish this project, the better.
• Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.

Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission.

Less versus Fewer

When making a comparison between quantities we often have to make a choice between the words fewer and less. Generally, when we're talking about countable things, we use the word fewer; when we're talking about measurable quantities that we cannot count, we use the word less. "She had fewer chores, but she also had less energy." The managers at our local Stop & Shop seem to have mastered this: they've changed the signs at the so-called express lanes from "Twelve Items or Less" to "Twelve Items or Fewer." Whether that's an actual improvement, we'll leave up to you. We do, however, definitely use less when referring to statistical or numerical expressions: It's less than twenty miles to Dallas. He's less than six feet tall. Your essay should be a thousand words or less. We spent less than forty dollars on our trip. The town spent less than four percent of its budget on snow removal. In these situations, it's possible to regard the quantities as sums of countable measures.

Taller than I / me ??

When making a comparison with "than" do we end with a subject form or object form, "taller than I/she" or "taller than me/her." The correct response is "taller than I/she." We are looking for the subject form: "He is taller than I am/she is tall." (Except we leave out the verb in the second clause, "am" or "is.") Some good writers, however, will argue that the word "than" should be allowed to function as a preposition. If we can say "He is tall like me/her," then (if "than" could be prepositional like like) we should be able to say, "He is taller than me/her." It's an interesting argument, but — for now, anyway — in formal, academic prose, use the subject form in such comparisons. We also want to be careful in a sentence such as "I like him better than she/her." The "she" would mean that you like this person better than she likes him; the "her" would mean that you like this male person better than you like that female person. (To avoid ambiguity and the slippery use of than, we could write "I like him better than she does" or "I like him better than I like her.")

More than / over ??

In the United States, we usually use "more than" in countable numerical expressions meaning "in excess of" or "over." In England, there is no such distinction. For instance, in the U.S., some editors would insist on "more than 40,000 traffic deaths in one year," whereas in the UK, "over 40,000 traffic deaths" would be acceptable. Even in the U.S., however, you will commonly hear "over" in numerical expressions of age, time, or height: "His sister is over forty; she's over six feet tall. We've been waiting well over two hours for her."

The Order of Adjectives in a Series

It would take a linguistic philosopher to explain why we say "little brown house" and not "brown little house" or why we say "red Italian sports car" and not "Italian red sports car." The order in which adjectives in a series sort themselves out is perplexing for people learning English as a second language. Most other languages dictate a similar order, but not necessarily the same order. It takes a lot of practice with a language before this order becomes instinctive, because the order often seems quite arbitrary (if not downright capricious). There is, however, a pattern. You will find many exceptions to the pattern in the table below, but it is definitely important to learn the pattern of adjective order if it is not part of what you naturally bring to the language.

The categories in the following table can be described as follows:

1. Determiners — articles and other limiters. See Determiners
2. Observation — post determiners and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)
3. Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)
4. Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)
5. Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)
6. Origin — demonical adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French, American, Canadian)
7. Material — demonical adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen, metallic, wooden)
8. Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
Determiner	Observation	Physical Description				Origin	Material	Qualifier	Noun
		Size	Shape	Age	Color
a	beautiful			old		Italian		touring	car
an	expensive			antique			silver		mirror
four	gorgeous		long- stemmed		red		silk		roses
her			short		black				hair
our		big		old		English			sheepdog
those			square				wooden	hat	boxes
that	dilapidated	little						hunting	cabin
several		enormous		young		American		basketball	players
some	delicious					Thai			food

This chart is probably too wide to print on a standard piece of paper. If you click HERE, you will get a one-page duplicate of this chart, which you can print out on a regular piece of paper.

It would be folly, of course, to run more than two or three (at the most) adjectives together. Furthermore, when adjectives belong to the same class, they become what we call coordinated adjectives, and you will want to put a comma between them: the inexpensive, comfortable shoes. The rule for inserting the comma works this way: if you could have inserted a conjunction — and or but — between the two adjectives, use a comma. We could say these are "inexpensive but comfortable shoes," so we would use a comma between them (when the "but" isn't there). When you have three coordinated adjectives, separate them all with commas, but don't insert a comma between the last adjective and the noun (in spite of the temptation to do so because you often pause there):

a popular, respected, and good looking student

See the section on Commas for additional help in punctuating coordinated adjectives.

Capitalizing Proper Adjectives

When an adjective owes its origins to a proper noun, it should probably be capitalized. Thus we write about Christian music, French fries, the English Parliament, the Ming Dynasty, a Faulkner an style, Jeffersonian democracy. Some periods of time have taken on the status of proper adjectives: the Nixon era, a Renaissance/Romantic/Victorian poet (but a contemporary novelist and medieval writer). Directional and seasonal adjectives are not capitalized unless they're part of a title:

We took the northwest route during the spring thaw. We stayed there until the town's annual Fall Festival of Small Appliances.

See the section on Capitalization for further help on this matter.

Collective Adjectives

When the definite article, the, is combined with an adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered, the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. The difference between a Collective Noun (which is usually regarded as singular but which can be plural in certain contexts) and a collective adjective is that the latter is always plural and requires a plural verb:

• The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
• The rich of Connecticut are responsible.
• The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.
• The young at heart are always a joy to be around.

Adjectival Opposites

The opposite or the negative aspect of an adjective can be formed in a number of ways. One way, of course, is to find an adjective to mean the opposite — an antonym. The opposite of beautiful is ugly, the opposite of tall is short. A thesaurus can help you find an appropriate opposite. Another way to form the opposite of an adjective is with a number of prefixes. The opposite of fortunate is unfortunate, the opposite of prudent is imprudent, the opposite of considerate is inconsiderate, the opposite of honorable is dishonorable, the opposite of alcoholic is nonalcoholic, the opposite of being properly filed is misfiled. If you are not sure of the spelling of adjectives modified in this way by prefixes (or which is the appropriate prefix), you will have to consult a dictionary, as the rules for the selection of a prefix are complex and too shifty to be trusted. The meaning itself can be tricky; for instance, flammable and inflammable mean the same thing.
A third means for creating the opposite of an adjective is to combine it with less or least to create a comparison which points in the opposite direction. Interesting shades of meaning and tone become available with this usage. It is kinder to say that "This is the least beautiful city in the state." than it is to say that "This is the ugliest city in the state." (It also has a slightly different meaning.) A candidate for a job can still be worthy and yet be "less worthy of consideration" than another candidate. It's probably not a good idea to use this construction with an adjective that is already a negative: "He is less unlucky than his brother," although that is not the same thing as saying he is luckier than his brother. Use the comparative less when the comparison is between two things or people; use the superlative least when the comparison is among many things or people.

• My mother is less patient than my father.
• Of all the new sitcoms, this is my least favorite show.

Some Adjectival Problem Children

Good versus Well

In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have to choose between the adjective good and the adverb well. With most verbs, there is no contest: when modifying a verb, use the adverb. He swims well. He knows only too well who the murderer is. However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do with the five human senses, you want to use the adjective instead. How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you. After a bath, the baby smells so good. Even after my careful paint job, this room doesn't look good. Many careful writers, however, will use well after linking verbs relating to health, and this is perfectly all right. In fact, to say that you are good or that you feel good usually implies not only that you're OK physically but also that your spirits are high. "How are you?" "I am well, thank you."

Bad versus Badly

When your cat died (assuming you loved your cat), did you feel bad or badly? Applying the same rule that applies to good versus well, use the adjective form after verbs that have to do with human feelings. You felt bad. If you said you felt badly, it would mean that something was wrong with your faculties for feeling.

Other Adjectival Considerations

Review the section on Compound Nouns and Modifiers for the formation of modifiers created when words are connected: a four-year-old child, a nineteenth-century novel, an empty-headed fool.
Review the section on Possessives for a distinction between possessive forms and "adjectival labels." (Do you belong to a Writers Club or a Writers' Club?)
Adjectives that are really Participles, verb forms with -ing and -ed endings, can be troublesome for some students. It is one thing to be a frightened child; it is an altogether different matter to be a frightening child. Do you want to go up to your professor after class and say that you are confused or that you are confusing? Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described ("you") has a passive relationship with something — something (the subject matter, the presentation) has bewildered you and you are confused. The -ing ending means that the noun described has a more active role — you are not making any sense so you are confusing (to others, including your professor).
The -ed ending modifiers are often accompanied by prepositions (these are not the only choices):

• We were amazed at all the circus animals.
• We were amused by the clowns.
• We were annoyed by the elephants.
• We were bored by the ringmaster.
• We were confused by the noise.
• We were disappointed by the motorcycle daredevils.
• We were disappointed in their performance.
• We were embarrassed by my brother.
• We were exhausted from all the excitement.
• We were excited by the lion-tamer.
• We were excited about the high-wire act, too.
• We were frightened by the lions.
• We were introduced to the ringmaster.
• We were interested in the tent.
• We were irritated by the heat.
• We were opposed to leaving early.
• We were satisfied with the circus.
• We were shocked at the level of noise under the big tent.
• We were surprised by the fans' response.
• We were surprised at their indifference.
• We were tired of all the lights after a while.
• We were worried about the traffic leaving the parking lot.

A- Adjectives

The most common of the so-called a- adjectives are ablaze, afloat, afraid, aghast, alert, alike, alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware. These adjectives will primarily show up as predicate adjectives (i.e., they come after a linking verb).

• The children were ashamed.
• The professor remained aloof.
• The trees were ablaze.

Occasionally, however, you will find a- adjectives before the word they modify: the alert patient, the aloof physician. Most of them, when found before the word they modify, are themselves modified: the nearly awake student, the terribly alone scholar. And a- adjectives are sometimes modified by "very much": very much afraid, very much alone, very much ashamed, etc.

ome adjectives can be identified by their endings. Typical adjective endings include:  
  
  

-able/-ible	achievable, capable, illegible, remarkable
-al	biographical, functional, internal, logical
-ful	beautiful, careful, grateful, harmful
-ic	cubic, manic, rustic, terrific
-ive	attractive, dismissive, inventive, persuasive
-less	breathless, careless, groundless, restless
-ous	courageous, dangerous, disastrous, fabulous

  In the following sentences, the highlighted words are adjectives. Tick the adjective features (a-c) that each exhibits.

1. His new car was stolen.     a. It has a typical adjective shape.     b. It is gradable.     c. It can undergo comparison.

2. Something smells good.    a. It has a typical adjective shape.     b. It is gradable.     c. It can undergo comparison.

3. Their restaurant is very successful.    a. It has a typical adjective shape.     b. It is gradable.     c. It can undergo comparison.

4. What an unbelievable story!    a. It has a typical adjective shape.     b. It is gradable.     c. It can undergo comparison.

5. My uncle is an atomic scientist.    a. It has a typical adjective shape.     b. It is gradable.     c. It can undergo comparison.

What is an Adverb?

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:

The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.

In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.

The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.

Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.

The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.

In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."

We urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.

Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."

Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.

In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.

Conjunctive Adverbs

You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs:

The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased.

He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else.

The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.

The crowd waited patiently for three hours; finally, the doors to the stadium were opened.

Batman and Robin fruitlessly searched the building; indeed, the Joker had escaped through a secret door in the basement.

What is an Adverb? | Adverb Form | Kinds of Adverbs | Adverb Position

What is an Adverb?

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics.

• John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
• Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)
• Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)

But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:

• Modify an adjective:
  - He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
  - That was extremely kind of you.
• Modify another adverb:
  - She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
  - He drives extremely fast.

Adverb Form

We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example:

• quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb)
• careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb)
• beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb)

There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:

Adjective ending	do this	adjective	adverb
most adjectives	add -ly	quick nice sole careful	quickly nicely solely carefully
-able or -ible	change -e to -y	regrettable horrible	regrettably horribly
-y	change -y to -ily	happy	happily
-ic	change -ic to -ically	economic	economically

But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The words friendly, lovely, lonely and neighbourly, for example, are all adjectives.
And some adverbs have no particular form. Look at these examples:

• well, fast, very, never, always, often, still

Kinds of Adverbs

Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.

• He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)
• They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)
• James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)

Adverb Position

When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause:

1. FRONT - before subject		Now	I will read a book.
2. MID - between subject + verb	I	often	read books.
3. END - after verb/object	I read books	carefully.

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example:

	adverb	adjective
She gave him a	really	dirty	look.
	adverb	adverb
We	quite	often	study English.

The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place, time, degree). The following table gives you some guidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb.

Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete. There are many exceptions.
kind of adverb		mainly modifies	sentence			usual position
				adverb
manner		verbs	She stroked his hair	gently.		END
place		verbs	He was working	here.		END
time	definite	verbs	He finished the job	yesterday.		END
	frequency		We	often	go to Paris.	MID
degree		verbs, adjectives and adverbs	I	nearly	died.	MID
			It was	terribly	funny.	before adjective
			He works	really	fast.	before adverb

Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:

1. daily, weekly, yearly
2. often, sometimes, rarely

You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.
We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence.
In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

• Adverbs of Definite Frequency
• Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency
  
  followed by an
• Adverbs of Frequency Quiz to check your understanding

Homonyms, Homophones, Homographs

If you are confused about the differences between homonyms, homophones, and homographs, you're in the right place to get it straightened out! Homonyms This is the big category—the umbrella—under which we find homophones and homographs. Homophones Homophones are words that sound alike, but have different meanings and spellings. They are the sets of words that you probably learned in elementary school, though your teacher may have used the broader category of homonyms. Examples of common homophones include: ·        their and there ·        hear and here ·        to, too, and two Regional accents may affect whether words are homophones. For example, in certain parts of the country, weather and whether sound the same. For those of us in the U.S., due and do are pronounced alike, but in most British accents, they sound different. Homographs Homographs are words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings and may have different pronunciations. Examples of common homographs include: ·        does and does He does like to run. Does are female deer. (Same spelling, different pronunciation.) ·        wind and wind I can feel the wind in my hair. Wind up the string before it gets tangled. (Same spelling, different pronunciation.) ·        well and well Sam doesn't feel well today. Our neighbors are digging a new well. (Same spelling, same pronunciation.) One way to remember the difference between the terms homophone and homograph is by looking at the derivation of the words: HOMO ("same") + PHONE ("sound") HOMO ("same") + GRAPH ("writing")

A homonym is a word that has the same pronunciation and spelling as another word, but a different meaning. Example: The word stalk, meaning either part of a plant or to follow (someone) around.

A homograph is a word that has the same spelling as another word, but a different meaning. Example: The spelling to cleave may denote to adhere to or to divide or split.

A homophone is a word that has the same pronunciation as another word, but whose meaning and/or spelling are different, . Example: All of to, too, and two, or there, their, and they’re.

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:

Dracula bites his victims on the neck.

The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.

In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.

Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.

My first teacher was Miss Crawford, but I remember the janitor Mr. Weatherbee more vividly.

Linking Verbs

A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes called copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb to be, but are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem, become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will be either a noun complement or an adjective complement:

• Those people are all professors.
• Those professors are brilliant.
• This room smells bad.
• I feel great.
• A victory today seems unlikely.

A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being are sometimes called resulting copulas. They, too, link a subject to a predicate adjective:

• His face turned purple.
• She became older.
• The dogs ran wild.
• The milk has gone sour.
• The crowd grew ugly.

Auxiliary or Helping Verbs

The issues raised by Helping or Auxiliary Verbs and Modal Auxiliaries are covered in a separate section.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition. The resulting combination creates what amounts to a new verb, whose meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non-native speakers. Phrasal verbs often arise from casual uses of the language and eventually work themselves into the mainstream of language use. Phrasal verbs can be both intransitive (The children were sitting around, doing nothing. The witness finally broke down on the stand.) and transitive in meaning (Our boss called off the meeting. She looked up her old boyfriend.) The word that is joined with a verb in this construction (often a preposition) is called a particle.
The problem with phrasal verbs is that their meaning is often, at first, obscure, and they often mean several different things. To make out, for instance, can mean to perceive or to see something; it can also mean to engage in light sexual play. If someone chooses to turn up the street that is a combination of a verb and a preposition, but it is not a phrasal verb. On the other hand, if your neighbors unexpectedly turn up (appear) at a party or your brother turns up his radio, those are phrasal verbs. To come out, we are told, has eighteen different meanings.
Verbs can be combined with different prepositions and other words, sometimes with dizzying effect: stand out, stand up, stand in, stand off, stand by, stand fast, stand pat, stand down, stand against, stand for. Further, the verb and the word or phrase it connects to are not always contiguous: "Fill this out," we would say, but then we would say, "Fill out this form."

al Verbs

Second Quiz on Phrasal Verbs

Causative Verbs

Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. In "The devil made me do it." the verb "made" causes the "do" to happen. Here is a brief list of causative verbs, in no particular order: let, help, allow, have, require, allow, motivate, get, make, convince, hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force. Most of them are followed by an object (noun or pronoun) followed by an infinitive: "She allows her pet cockatiel to perch on the windowsill. She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage."
Three causative verbs are exceptions to the pattern described above. Instead of being followed by a noun/pronoun and an infinitive, the causative verbs have, make and let are followed by a noun/pronoun and the base form of the verb (which is actually an infinitive with the "to" left off).

• Professor Villa had her students read four short novels in one week.
• She also made them read five plays in one week.
• However, she let them skip the final exam.

Tenses

Tense shows the time of a verb's action or being. There are three inflected forms reflected by changes in the endings of verbs. The present tense indicates that something is happening or being now: "She is a student. She drives a new car." The simple past tense indicates that something happened in the past: "She was a student. She drove a new car." And the past participle form is combined with auxiliary verbs to indicate that something happened in the past prior to another action: "She has been a student. She had driven a new car."
Unlike most other languages, English does not have inflected forms for the future tense. Instead, English future forms are created with the use of auxiliaries: "She will be a student. She is going to drive a new car." English can even create the future by using the present tense, "The bus arrives later this afternoon," or the present progressive, "He is relocating to Portland later next month."

Irregular Verbs

Most verbs in English form their various tenses consistently: add -ed to the base of a verb to create the simple past and past participle: he walked; he has walked. There are, however, a number of so-called irregular verbs, (including, unfortunately, some very common verbs such as to be and to have) whose various forms must be memorized. An alphabetized list of Common Irregular Verbs is available in the Guide that you can copy or print out and then try to memorize or at least use in practice sentences. You should take the quizzes on irregular verbs, below, after you've looked at this list.

Sequence of Tenses

Sequence of Tenses: The relationship between verbs in a main clause and verbs in dependent clauses is important. These verb tenses don't have to be identical as long as they reflect, logically, shifts in time and meaning: "My brother had graduated before I started college." "My brother will have graduated before I start." Click HERE for a chart describing various time relationships and how those relationships determine the appropriate sequence of verb tenses.

Verbals

Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as a true verb. The are sometimes called "nonfinite" (unfinished or incomplete) verbs. Because time is involved with all verb forms, whether finite or nonfinite, however, following a logical Tense Sequence is important. Click HERE for a chart describing the time elements involved in choosing the correct verbal form. Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related words in what is called a verbal phrase.
Participle: a verb form acting as an adjective. The running dog chased the fluttering moth. A present participle (like running or fluttering) describes a present condition; a past participle describes something that has happened: "The completely rotted tooth finally fell out of his mouth." The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence; there is a huge difference between a confusing student and a confused student. See the section on Adjectives for further help on this issue.
Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to. To sleep, perchance to dream. A present infinitive describes a present condition: "I like to sleep." The perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb: "I would like to have won that game." See the section on Sequence below for other forms as well.
Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun. Running in the park after dark can be dangerous. Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund phrase ("running in the park after dark").

Because gerunds and gerund phrases are nouns, they can be used in any way that a noun can be used:

• as subject: Being king can be dangerous for your health.
• as object of the verb: He didn't particularly like being king.
• as object of a preposition: He wrote a book about being king.

Infinitives and Gerunds and Sequence

Although they are not, strictly speaking, verbs, infinitives and gerunds carry within them the idea of action. Combined with auxiliary verb forms, like verbs, they also express various shades of time.

Simple Forms	We had planned to watch all the events of the Olympics Seeing those athletes perform is always a great thrill.
Perfective Forms	The women's hockey team hoped to have won a gold medal before they were done. We were thrilled about their having been in contention in the world championships before.
Passive Forms	To be chosen as an olympian must be the biggest thrill in any athlete's life. Being chosen, however, is probably not enough.
Perfective Passive Forms	The women did not seem satisfied simply to have been selected as players. Having been honored this way, they went out and earned it by winning the gold.
Perfective Progressive Infinitive	To have been competing at that level, at their age already, was quite an accomplishment.

Intransitive verb

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Intransitive" redirects here. For intransitive relations in mathematics, see Intransitivity.

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2007)

In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb that is associated with only one noun or noun phrase. The number of noun phrases associated with a verb is known in linguistics as its valency, and so an intransitive verb is also called a univalent verb. In English, this one noun is the subject and so an intransitive verb is commonly said to have no object; this distinguishes it from a transitive verb, which has a valency greater than one. Examples of intransitive verbs include to die and to sleep. Transitive verbs include to kill and to buy.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done. In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an object.

transitive verbs

A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to an object.

·        He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)

·        She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)

In these sentences, something is being done to an object.
A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct object. The indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, although the words to and for are not used. In the following examples, notice the difference between the direct and indirect objects.
The direct object (letter) receives the action (sent). The indirect object (Robert) is the person to whom the letter is sent.

·        He sent Robert the letter.

The direct object (lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object ( class) is the group to whom the lecture is given.

·        She gave her class the lecture.

Learn to recognize words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs. When these words are pronouns, they must be in the objective case.

Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb does not take an object.

·        She sleeps too much.

·        He complains frequently.

In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and complain.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.

·        She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)

·        She sings spirituals. (spirituals receives the action of sings = transitive)

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.
Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so	although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

• Single Word
  for example: and, but, because, although
• Compound (often ending with as or that)
  for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
  for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
  - Jack and Jill went up the hill.
  - The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
  - I went swimming although it was cold.

Position

• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

In this lesson we will look in more detail at:

• Coordinating Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

+

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

• I like [tea] and [coffee].
• [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

• She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
• He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:

• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

+

Look at this example:

main or independent clause	subordinate or dependent clause
Ram went swimming	although	it was raining.
	subordinating conjunction

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used as joiners.
Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.
The following are the kinds of conjunctions:
      
A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
            words to words,          phrases to phrases,          clauses to clauses.

        
Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.


Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.

      
Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:
When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.
           
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.
           
A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction
          
  
       
B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or	both. . . and
neither. . . nor	not only. . .  but also

            
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.


C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
These conjunctions join independent clauses together.
The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

after all

in addition

next

also	incidentally	nonetheless
as a result	indeed	on the contrary
besides	in fact	on the other hand
consequently	in other words	otherwise
finally	instead	still
for example	likewise	then
furthermore	meanwhile	therefore
hence	moreover	thus
however	nevertheless

Punctuation:

Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

    
D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

after	in order (that)	unless
although	insofar as	until
as	in that	when
as far as	lest	whenever
as soon as	no matter how	where
as if	now that	wherever
as though	once	whether
because	provided (that)	while
before	since	why
even if	so that
even though	supposing (that)
how	than
if	that
inasmuch as	though
in case (that)	till

Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.
   
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose:	It is raining, so we have an umbrella.
Tight:	Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses.  When the independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a comma.

Preposition

Definition: Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns, pronouns and other words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the word they are referring to. Some common prepositions are: about above across after against along among around at before behind below beneath beside between beyond but by despite down during except for from in inside into like near of off on onto out outside over past since through throughout till to toward under underneath until up upon with within without. Prepositions typically come before a noun: For example: after class at home before Tuesday in London on fire with pleasure A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence. For example: The book is on the table. The book is beside the table. She read the book during class. In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time. Prepositions are classified as simple or compound. Simple prepositions Simple prepositions are single word prepositions. These are all showed above. For example: The book is on the table. Compound prepositions Compound prepositions are more than one word. in between and because of are prepositions made up of two words - in front of, on behalf of are prepositions made up of three words. For example: The book is in between War and Peace and The Lord of the Rings. The book is in front of the clock. Examples: The children climbed the mountain without fear. There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated. The spider crawled slowly along the banister. The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English: Prepositions of Time: English Usage Example on days of the week on Monday in months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time (when?) in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour at for night for weekend a certain point of time (when?) at night at the weekend at half past nine since from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1980 for over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004 to telling the time ten to six (5:50) past telling the time ten past six (6:10) to / till / until marking the beginning and end of a period of time from Monday to/till Friday till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last He is on holiday until Friday. by in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time I will be back by 6 o’clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages. Prepositions of Place: English Usage Example in room, building, street, town, country book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world at meaning next to, by an object for table for events place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work) at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work on attached for a place with a river being on a surface for a certain side (left, right) for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio by, next to, beside left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car. under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else the bag is under the table below lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the surface over covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side (also across) overcoming an obstacle put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall above higher than something else, but not directly over it a path above the lake across getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side walk across the bridge swim across the lake through something with limits on top, bottom and the sides drive through the tunnel to movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house towards movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it) go 5 steps towards the house onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden

  What is a Preposition?

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:

The book is on the table.

The book is beneath the table.

The book is leaning against the table.

The book is beside the table.

She held the book over the table.

She read the book during class.

In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:

The children climbed the mountain without fear.

In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.

There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.

Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.

The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.

Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound verb "is hiding."

The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office.

Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.
preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence.  The relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount.  In the sentence She went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction.  In the sentence He came by bus, by is a  preposition which shows manner.  In the sentence They will be here at three o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under is a preposition which shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is called the object of the preposition.  The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition.  The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase.  The following chart shows the prepositions, objects of the preposition, and prepositional phrases of the sentences above.
 

Preposition	Object of the Preposition	Prepositional Phrase
to	the store	to the store
by	bus	by bus
at	three o'clock	at three o'clock
under	the table	under the table

Prepositional phrases are like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible.   Below are some common prepositions of time and place and examples of their use.
Prepositions of time:
at two o'clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day
Prepositions of place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books

Adjective + Preposition

ABOUT
Use the following adjectives followed by 'about'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

• angry / annoyed / furious about something

Example: I'm really angry about our losses on the stock market!

AT / BY
Use the following adjectives followed by 'at' or 'by'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

• amazed / astonished / shocked / surprised at OR by something

Example: I was amazed at his stamina.

FOR
Use the following adjectives followed by 'for'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.

• angry with someone for something

Example: I'm really angry with John for his total lack of responsibility.

FROM
Use the following adjectives followed by 'from'.

• different from someone / something

Example: His photographs are very different from his paintings.

 djective + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds

The following is ONLY A SAMPLE LIST of the most commonly used adjective + preposition combinations that can be followed by gerunds.

accustomed to	He is accustomed to having his own office.
addicted to	She is addicted to watching TV.
afraid of	She is afraid of speaking in public.
anxious about	Norma is anxious about making the presentation.
bored of	I am bored of doing the same old job.
capable of	He is capable of winning a gold medal.
committed to	She is committed to improving her English.
concerned about	Nancy was concerned about being late.
content with	Tim is content with winning second place.
dedicated to	The organization is dedicated to ending poverty.
devoted to	The money will be devoted to protecting the environment.
disappointed with	Fiona was disappointed with coming in third place.
discouraged by	He was discouraged by not getting the job.
excited about	The researcher was excited about going to Africa.
famous for	That actor is famous for being extremely weird.
fond of	She is fond of having picnics.
frightened of	She is frightened of being alone at night.
guilty of	The banker was guilty of stealing money.
happy about	He was happy about winning the lottery.
interested in	She is interested in becoming a doctor.
involved in	He was involved in making the movie.
known for	She was known for causing problems.
opposed to	They are opposed to building a new road in the park.
proud of	He was proud of having completed the marathon.
remembered for	She is remembered for protecting mountain gorillas.
responsible for	He is responsible for causing the damage.
scared of	Tina is scared of being alone at night.
terrified of	The surfer is terrified of being attacked by a shark.
tired from	She is tired from working all day.
tired of	Margaret is tired of making dinner every night.
worried about	The hikers were worried about not having enough water.

2. Some adjectives can be followed by either of two or more prepositions

annoyed about something The Ministry was annoyed about criticism in the paper
annoyed with someone They were. annoyed with us for charging them

good/bad at something I'm very bad at mathematics.
good/bad for something The expected cut in interest will be good for industry.
good/bad with something She should be in Marketing. She's very good with customers.

responsible to someone The Export Manager is responsible to the Sales Director.
responsible for something He is responsible for preparing handouts.

sorry about something I am sorry about the job. It's a shame you didn't get it.
sorry for doing something He said he was sorry for keeping me waiting.
(feel) sorry for someone I feel very sorry for Peter. He has been fired.

3. These combinations of adjectives with prepositions may be followed by noun or noun phrase.

The students were very excited about the results of the experiment.

4. When followed by a verb, the -ing form must be used.

Please let me know whether you would be interested in arranging a meeting.

Prepositional Phrases

Rate this Article 

1

2

3

4

5

Prepositional phrases modify nouns and verbs while indicating various relationships between subjects and verbs. They are used to color and inform sentences in powerful ways.

Ads by Google

Improve your English Free - Read, write, hear and speak English Prepare for TOEFL examination www.worldenglishinstitute.org

Study Business English - Business English Courses in Toronto Top Tutors, All Levels, Apply! SchoolofEnglish.org.uk

Learn Languages for Free - 30 Languages Lessons on Livemocha Practice with Native Speakers! www.Livemocha.com

What are the Parts of a Prepositional Phrase?

In simplest terms, prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and an object of a preposition. Prepositions are indeclinable words that introduce the object of a prepositional phrase. Indeclinable words are words that have only one possible form. For example, below is a preposition, but belows or belowing are not possible forms of below.
The noun phrase or pronoun that follows the preposition is called the object of the preposition. For example, behind the couch is a prepositional phrase where behind is the preposition and the noun phrase the couch acts as the object of the preposition. Sometimes adjectives are used to further modify the object of the preposition, as in behind the big old smelly green couch.

Formal Functions of Prepositions

Prepositions perform three formal functions in sentences. They can act as an adjective modifying a noun, as an adverb modifying a verb, or as a nominal when used in conjunction with the verb form to be.

Prepositions Functioning as Adjectives

In the following sentences, prepositional phrases perform the function of modifying the nouns boat, pen, and car:

Look at the boat with the blue sail. Please hand me the pen next to the telephone. Park the car beside the fence.

Prepositions Functioning as Adverbs

In these examples, notice how the prepositional phrases perform adverbial functions by modifying the verbs after, stalled, and won:

The coyote runs after the rabbit. The car stalled despite the tune-up. The team won without the starting quarterback.

What are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Examples:

• He can  speak Chinese.
• She should  be here by 9:00.

2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:

• He should not be late.
• They might not come to the party.

3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:

• He will can go with us. Not Correct
• She musted study very hard. Not Correct

Common Modal Verbs

Can Could May Might Must

Ought to Shall Should Will Would

Modal Forms

Modal verbs can be used in a variety of different forms. Study the examples below.

Modal Simple I could swim at the beach. Modal Continuous I could be swimming at the beach right now. Modal Perfect I could have swum at the beach yesterday. Modal Perfect Continuous I could have been swimming at the beach instead of working in the office.

Passive Modal Simple The room should be cleaned once a day. Passive Modal Continuous The room should be being cleaned now. Passive Modal Perfect The room should have been cleaned yesterday. Passive Modal Perfect Continuous The room should have been being cleaned but nobody was there

he modal verbs are:-
CAN / COULD / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHALL / SHOULD / OUGHT TO / WILL / WOULD

Modal	Example	Uses
Can	They can control their own budgets. We can’t fix it. Can I smoke here? Can you help me?	Ability / Possibility Inability / Impossibility Asking for permission Request
Could	Could I borrow your dictionary? Could you say it again more slowly? We could try to fix it ourselves. I think we could have another Gulf War. He gave up his old job so he could work for us.	Asking for permission. Request Suggestion Future possibility Ability in the past
May	May I have another cup of coffee? China may become a major economic power.	Asking for permission Future possibility
Might	We'd better phone tomorrow, they might be eating their dinner now. They might give us a 10% discount.	Present possibility Future possibility
Must	We must say good-bye now. They mustn’t disrupt the work more than necessary.	Necessity / Obligation Prohibition
Ought to	We ought to employ a professional writer.	Saying what’s right or correct
Shall (More common in the UK than the US)	Shall I help you with your luggage? Shall we say 2.30 then? Shall I do that or will you?	Offer Suggestion Asking what to do
Should	We should sort out this problem at once. I think we should check everything again. Profits should increase next year.	Saying what’s right or correct Recommending action Uncertain prediction
Will	I can’t see any taxis so I’ll walk. I'll do that for you if you like. I’ll get back to you first thing on Monday. Profits will increase next year.	Instant decisions Offer Promise Certain prediction
Would	Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me? Would you pass the salt please? Would you mind waiting a moment? "Would three o`clock suit you?" - "That’d be fine." Would you like to play golf this Friday? "Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "I’d like tea please."	Asking for permission Request Request Making arrangements Invitation Preferences

PROGRESSIVE TENSES

A. Present progressive = am  + (base form + -ing) :  I am working.  OR is + (base form + -ing) : She is eating. OR  are + (base form + -ing) :  We are studying.

1. A planned activity.

            Sofia is starting school at CEC tomorrow

2. An activity that is occurring right now.

            Jan is watching TV right now.

3. An activity that is in progress, although not actually occurring at the time of speaking.

            Sara is learning English at CEC.

B. Past progressive = was  + (base form + -ing) : I was working.  OR were + (base form + -ing) : They were eating.

1. A past activity in progress while  another activity occurred.

            At 6:00 yesterday I was eating dinner.

            The phone rang while I was eating.

2. Two past activities in progress at the same time.

            While I was answering the phone, my wife was cooking dinner.

C. Future progressive = will be + (base form + -ing): I will be working. He will be eating.

 An activity that will be in progress.

            Tomorrow Sam will be studying for the test on Unit 1.

D. Present perfect progressive = have + (base form + -ing): I have been working.  OR has + (base form + -ing): She has been eating.

1. This tense emphasizes the duration of an activity that began in the past and continues into the present.  It often uses time words or phrases. It may be used to refer to continuing activity that is recent.

            He has been painting houses all summer.

            I’ve been studying English for 2 years.

2. It may be used to refer to continuing activity that is recent.

            He has been going to school at CEC.

E. Past perfect progressive  = had + (base form + -ing) : I had been working. He had been eating.

            When the teacher arrived, I had been waiting almost 10 minutes.

            He was out of breath because he had been running to catch the bus.

F. Future perfect progressive = will  have + (base form + -ing): I will have been working. She will have been eating.

This tense emphasizes the duration of a continuing activity in the future that ends before another activity or time in the future.

            By 2003 Janet will have been studying English at CEC for 3 years.

            By 9:45 tonight I will have been sitting in class for 2 hours and 45 minutes.

 Simple Past Tense

I sang

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:

• Structure: how do we make the simple past tense?
• Use: how do we use the simple past tense?

·        The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject	+	main verb
		past

·        The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	not	+	main verb
		did				base

·        The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:

auxiliary verb	+	subject	+	main verb
did				base

·        The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:

 How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation - an event - in the past. The event can be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:

The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday. She went to the door. We did not hear the telephone. Did you see that car?
past	present	future
The action is in the past.

Here are some long events with the simple past tense:

I lived in Bangkok for 10 years. The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years. We did not sing at the concert. Did you watch TV last night?
past	present	future
The action is in the past.

Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:

• the event is in the past
• the event is completely finished
• we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we must use the

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.
Examples:

• I play tennis.
• She does not play tennis.

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.
Examples:

• Cats like milk.
• Birds do not like milk.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well.
Examples:

• The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.
• The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.

SE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.
Examples:

• I am here now.
• She is not here now.

Simple Future

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something.
Examples:

• I will send you the information when I get it.
• I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise

"Will" is usually used in promises.
Examples:

• I will call you when I arrive.
• If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has access to inexpensive health insurance.
• I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.

USE 3 "Be going to" to Express a Plan

"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not.
Examples:

• He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.
• She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning.
Examples:

• The year 2222 will be a very interesting year.

Present Perfect

FORM

[has/have + past participle]
Examples:

• You have seen that movie many times.
• Have you seen that movie many times?

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.
Examples:

• I have seen that movie twenty times.
• I think I have met him once before.

ou can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.
Examples:

• I have been to France.
  This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France. Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
• I have been to France three times.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.
Examples:

• You have grown since the last time I saw you.
• The government has become more interested in arts education.

TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.
Examples:

• Man has walked on the Moon.
• Our son has learned how to read.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.
Examples:

• James has not finished his homework yet.
• Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.
Examples:

• The army has attacked that city five times.
• I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.

Past Perfect

FORM

[had + past participle]
Examples:

• You had studied English before you moved to New York.
• Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.
Examples:

• I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
• I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
• Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.
Examples:

• We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
• By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.
• They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

Kinds of Sentences

Declarative - A declarative sentence makes a statement. A declarative sentence ends with a period.
Example: The house will be built on a hill.
Interrogative - An interrogative sentence asks a question. An interrogative sentence ends with a question mark.
Example: How did you find the card?
Exclamatory - An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. An exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark.
Example: The monster is attacking!
Imperative - An imperative sentence gives a command.
Example: Cheryl, try the other door.
Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence (you) is understood.
Example: Look in the closet. (You, look in the closet.)

The Declarative Sentence

The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and often will write entire essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them far more often than any other type. A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument, without requiring either an answer or action from the reader. You punctuate your declarative sentences with a simple period:

Ottawa is the capital of Canada.

The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes me.

He asked which path leads back to the lodge.

Sentence Types
All of these sentence types further fall into four basic sentence type categories in English.

• Simple
• Compound
• Complex
• Compound - Complex

Simple Sentences
Simple sentences contain no conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, etc.).
Examples
Frank ate his dinner quickly.
Peter and Sue visited the museum last Saturday.
Are you coming to the party?
Compound Sentences
Compound sentences contain two statements that are connected by a conjunction (i.e., and, but, or, etc.).
Examples
I wanted to come, but it was late.
The company had an excellent year, so they gave everyone a bonus.
I went shopping, and my wife went to her classes.
Complex Sentences
Complex sentences contain a dependent clause and at least one independent clause. The two clauses are connected by a subordinator (i.e, which, who, although, despite, if, since, etc.).
Examples
My daughter, who was late for class, arrived shortly after the bell rang.
That's the man who bought our house
Although it was difficult, the class passed the test with excellent marks.
Compound - Complex Sentences
Compound - complex sentences contain at least one dependent clause and more than one independent clause. The clauses are connected by both conjunctions (i.e., but, so, and, etc.) and subordinators (i.e., who, because, although, etc.)
Examples
John, who briefly visited last month, won the prize, and he took a short vacation.
Jack forgot his friend's birthday, so he sent him a card when he finally remembered.
The report which Tom complied was presented to the board, but it was rejected because it was too complex.

entences:  Simple, Compound, and Complex

Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and hard to understand.  This page contains definitions of simple, compound, and complex sentences with many simple examples.  The purpose of these examples is to help the ESL/EFL learner to identify sentence basics including identification of sentences in the short quizzes that follow.   After that, it will be possible to analyze more complex sentences varieties.  SIMPLE SENTENCE A simple sentence, also called an independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. In the following simple sentences, subjects are in yellow, and verbs are in green.   A. Some students like to study in the mornings. B. Juan and Arturo play football every afternoon. C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. The three examples above are all simple sentences.  Note that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence C contains a compound verb.  Simple sentences, therefore, contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought, but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.  COMPOUND SENTENCE A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red.  A.  I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English.  B.  Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.  C.  Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping. The above three sentences are compound sentences.  Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it.  Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses.  Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators.  In sentence B, which action occurred first?  Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping.  In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first.  In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping."  How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses?  What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence? COMPLEX SENTENCE A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red. A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.  B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow. D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying. When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong. Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma.  The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there.  In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence.  COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause.  The subjects, verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined.  A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics. B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf. C. The house which AbrahAM  Lincoln was born in is still standing. D. The town where I grew up is in the United States. Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know that sentences containing adjective clauses are complex. CONCLUSION Are sure you now know the differences between simple, compound, and complex sentences?  Click QUICK QUIZ to find out.  This quiz is just six sentences.  The key is to look for the subjects and verbs first. Another quiz, this one about Helen Keller contains ten sentences. These quiz sentences based on the short story, The Americanization of Shadrach Cohen, by Bruno Lessing. Quick Quiz:  Shadrach After each quiz, click GRADE QUIZ to see your score immediately.  Remember that with the skill to write good simple, compound, and complex sentences, you will have the flexibility to (1) convey your ideas precisely and (2) entertain with sentence variety at the same time!  Good luck with these exercises!

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

I. SUBJECT       The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that does, causes, or receives the action of the verb. It has gender, number, and person.
II.  OBJECT The direct object of a sentence recieves the action of the verb.
A. DIRECT OBJECT - A direct object answers the question “who” or “what” of the verb. It must come directly after the verb. (i.e. I guarded a Sefer Torah. “Sefer Torah” is the direct object.)
B. INDIRECT OBJECT - An indirect object feceives the action of the verb indirectly. (ex Shimon gave the book to me. “To me” is the indirect object.)
C. OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION - A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a noun or pronoun, with or without adjectives. The noun or pronoun is the object of the preposition. (ex. Moshe placed the book on the table. Shimon learned in Yeshiva. “Table” and “Yeshiva” are objects of the preposition.)
   III.  PREDICATE The predicate is the portion of the sentence containing the verb. A predicate says something about the subject of the sentence.

English Grammar - Sentence Structures

Here we will practice building effective sentences. After reviewing the basic parts of speech, we'll work with more advanced structures: adjective and adverb clauses, appositives, participial phrases, and absolutes. Finally, we will focus on ways to correct some common problems (fragments and run-ons) to ensure that our sentences are clear and complete.

Secondary parts of the sentence

The Appositive

Recognize an appositive when you see one.

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples:

The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

Nouns or nominatives of address are the persons or things to which you are speaking. They are set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas, may have modifiers, and are not related to the rest of the sentence grammatically. You can remove them and a complete sentence remains. They may be first, last or in the middle of the sentence. Examples: John, where are you going? Where are you going, John? Where, John, are you going?

An appositive is a word or group of words that identifies or renames the noun or pronoun that it follows. It is set off by commas unless closely tied to the word that it identifies or renames. ("Closely tied" means that it is needed to identify the word.) Examples: My son Carl is a medical technician. (no commas) Badger, our dog with a missing leg, has a love for cats. (commas needed) Appositives should not be confused with predicate nominatives. A verb will separate the subject from the predicate nominative. An appositive can follow any noun or pronoun including the subject, direct object or predicate nominative.

We must be sure to not confuse nouns of address with appositives since they are both set off with commas.

Because I use diagramming to teach in the classroom and can't on the internet, I will be asking you to find various parts of the sentence for the repetition. The repetition should help you remember the parts of the sentence.

Prepositional phrases modify nouns and verbs while indicating various relationships between subjects and verbs. They are used to color and inform sentences in powerful ways.

Infinitive and Gerund

Exercises and Tests on Infinitive and Gerund

There are certain words in English that are usually followed by an infinitive or gerund. If you are not sure whether to use the infinitive or gerund, check out our lists or look the words up in a dictionary.

Infinitive

Use

Certain words are followed by an infinite verb with or without ‘to’.

Use and Word Lists	Example
as the subject of a clause	To know you is to love you.
after certain expressions (without ‘to’)	Why not go to the cinema?
after certain verbs (without ‘to’)	I can swim.
after certain verbs (with ‘to’)	He wants to swim.
after certain verbs with interrogatives (infinitive constructions)	They don’t know how to swim.
after certain verbs with objects (without ‘to’)	He made her swim.
after certain verbs with objects (with ‘to’)	They wanted him to swim.
after certain adjectives and their comparisons	It’s easier to swim downstream.
after nouns deriving from the verbs mentioned above	We made a promise to swim. (derived from the verb ‘to promise’)

Gerund

Form

ing form of the verb

Exceptions in Spelling

See → Present Progressive – Exceptions

Use

Certain words are followed by an Ing-Form.

Use and Word Lists	Example
as the subject of a clause	Cycling is good for your health.
after certain adjectives	He’s afraid of going by plane.
after certain prepositions	Before going to bed he turned off the lights.
after certain verbs	I enjoy cooking.
after certain verbs with prepositions	I am looking forward to seeing you again.
after certain nouns	We had problems finding our way back home.

Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form

Use and Word Lists	Example
same meaning	I started to read. / I started reading.
same meaning but different use	She forbids us to talk. / She forbids talking.
different meaning	He stopped to smoke. / He stopped smoking.
infinitive or present participle	I saw him go up the stairs. / I saw him going up the stairs.

The Clause

Recognize a clause when you see one.

Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], relative [or adjective], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish one type of clause from another.

Main Clauses

Every main clause will follow this pattern:

subject + verb = complete thought.

Here are some examples:

Lazy students whine.

Students = subject; whine = verb.

Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

My dog loves pizza crusts.

Dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error.

Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause will follow this pattern:

subordinate conjunction + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whenever lazy students whine

Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb.

As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts

Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb.
The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this:

main clause + Ø + subordinate clause.

subordinate clause + , + main clause.

Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above:

Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads.

Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these:

relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb = incomplete thought.

relative pronoun as subject + verb = incomplete thought.

Here are some examples:

Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser

Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb.

Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm

Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs.

That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter

That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs.

Who loves pizza crusts

Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb.
Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above:

The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their complaints to themselves.

My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm.

Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter.

Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly.
Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath.

Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas.
If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath.

Noun Clauses

Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example:

You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew.

Ingredients = noun.
If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause:

You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew.

What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made from an independent clause and a dependent clause joined together. Some examples: After I came home, I made dinner. (dependent clause: "After I came home") (indpendent clause: I made dinner) We visited the museum before it closed. (dependent clause: before it closed.) (independent clause: We visited the museum) Complex sentences are often formed by putting these words at the beginning of the dependent clause: as, as if, before, after, because, though, though, even though, while, when, whenever, if, during, as soon as, as long as, since, until, unless, where, and wherever. These words are called subordinating conjunctions.

Here are some examples of complex sentences:

Because the bridge wasn't properly maintained by the government, it fell down. indpendent clause: it fell down dependent clause: because the bridge wasn't properly maintained by the government
Although he ate a really big dinner, now he wants to eat cake for dessert.
Whenever they eat at this restaurant, they order a hamburger and fries.
He'll be able to maintain a healthy weight if he keeps exercising.
Because the world is getting warmer, polar bears are in danger of becoming extinct.

Complex-Sentence is the sentence which has two or more subordinate clauses besides the main clause.

The analysis of Complex sentences is the analysis of the clauses in those sentences.

Now let us analyse the clauses in the Complex Sentences so that we could become familiar with the formation of sentences.

1. Complex Sentences, containing two subordinate clauses.

Example:

Whenever he heard the question, the old man who lived in the house answered that.

In this sentence, we find two subordinate clauses.

a. The old man…..answered. (Principal Clause)
b. Whenever he heard. (Subordinate Clause)
c. Who lived in that house? (Subordinate Clause)

2. Complex Sentences, containing three subordinate clauses.

Example:

Whenever he heard the question, the old man who lived in that house, answered that the earth is flat.

There are three clauses in this sentence.
a. The old man…..answered. (Principal Clause)
b. Whenever he heard. (Subordinate Clause)
c. Who lived in that house? (Subordinate Clause)
d. That the earth is flat. (Subordinate Clause)

3. Complex Sentences, containing four subordinate clauses.

Example:

I knew a man, who believed that, if a man were permitted to make the ballads,he need not care who made the laws of the nation.



This sentence has four subordinate clauses, besides the principal clause.

a. I knew a man. (Principal Clause)
b. Who believed …(Adjective Clause)
c. That he need not care. (Noun Clause)
d. Who made the laws of the nation? (Noun Clause)
e. If a man is admitted to make the ballads. (Adverb Clause)

Understanding the Complex-Sentence in terms of Clause analysis will take you to the next level of forming sentences.

This way you could understand how the complex sentences are formed and what are the clauses used to form a complex sentence.

This analysis will help you transform the sentence from a simple sentence to a complex sentence, and from one type of sentence to another type of sentence.

Transformation of sentence will help you fill your writings with various types of sentences in order to add varieties to you writings.

You could find an opportunity to transform the sentences in the exercises section.

To learn how to transform the sentences, go to the section on ‘Transformation of Sentences’.

. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:

What Billy did shocked his friends.

A noun clause can be an object of a verb:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

A noun clause can be a subject complement:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:

Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.

A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:

Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

---

B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:

I know + Billy made a mistake =

I know that Billy made a mistake.

To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:

George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =

George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.

To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:

I don’t know + Where is George? =

I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun clause markers:

that

if, whether

Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why

Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

---

D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.

correct:

Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.

correct:

That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

not correct:

* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

---

E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a question:
not correct:

* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)

correct:

Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)

not correct:

* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)

correct:

Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)

---

F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun clause is:

future if its action/state is later

He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.

He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.

present if its action/state is at the same time

He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.

past if its action/state is earlier

He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.

When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:

was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later

He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.

He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.

past if its action/state is at the same time

He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.

past perfect if its action/state is earlier

He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.

If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.

The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.

If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.

We learned that English is not easy.

The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.

---

G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined) and one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:

That George learned how to swim is a miracle.

Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.

What Mary said confused her parents.

However you learn to spell is OK with me.

Noun clauses as objects of verbs:

We didn’t know that Billy would jump.

We didn’t know Billy would jump.

Can you tell me if Fred is here?

I don’t know where he is.

George eats whatever is on his plate.

Noun clauses as subject complements:

The truth is that Billy was not very smart.

The truth is Billy was not very smart.

The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.

The winner will be whoever runs fastest.

Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:

Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.

He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.

Noun clauses as adjective complements:

He is happy that he is learning English.

We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.

NOUN CLAUSES 1

A noun clause is a dependent clause and cannot stand alone as a sentence.  It must be connected to an independent clause, a main clause. A noun clause has its own subject and verb. It can begin with a question word. It can begin with if or whether. And it can begin with that. 

a) Noun clauses with question words:

The following question words can be used to introduce a noun clause: when, where, why, how, who, whom, what, which, whose. 

Example: 

Answer this question using 'I don't know...'

Where does Maria live?

I don't know -------------.

It is incorrect to say, "I don't know where does she live."

Notice that "does she live" is a question form.  Noun clauses cannot be in question form; it has to be a statement.

"I don't know where she lives" is the correct answer.

The Adjective Clause

Recognize an adjective clause when you see one.

An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements:

• First, it will contain a subject and verb.
• Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why].
• Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one?

The adjective clause will follow one of these two patterns:

relative pronoun or adverb + subject + verb

relative pronoun as subject + verb

Here are some examples:

Whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie

Whose = relative pronoun; eyes = subject; pleaded = verb.

Why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie

Why = relative adverb; Fred = subject; can stand = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].

That bounced across the kitchen floor

That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; bounced = verb.

Who hiccupped for seven hours afterward

Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; hiccupped = verb.

Avoid writing a sentence fragment.

An adjective clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each adjective clause to a main clause. Read the examples below. Notice that the adjective clause follows the word that it describes.

Diane felt manipulated by her beagle Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie.

Chewing with her mouth open is one reason why Fred cannot stand sitting across from his sister Melanie.

Growling ferociously, Oreo and Skeeter, Madison's two dogs, competed for the hardboiled egg that bounced across the kitchen floor.

Laughter erupted from Annamarie, who hiccupped for seven hours afterward.

Punctuate an adjective clause correctly.

Punctuating adjective clauses can be tricky. For each sentence, you will have to decide if the adjective clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly.
Essential clauses do not require commas. An adjective clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

The vegetables that people leave uneaten are often the most nutritious.

Vegetables is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the adjective clause. Thus, the adjective clause is essential and requires no commas.
If, however, we eliminate vegetables and choose a more specific noun instead, the adjective clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

Broccoli, which people often leave uneaten, is very nutritious.

A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify nouns.

The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)

It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)

The car that she is driving is not hers.

(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject (she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)

Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns they modify.

---

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:

The book is on the table. + I like the book.

The man is here. + The man wants the book.

2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.

The book is on the table. + I like which

The man is here. + who wants the book

3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now an adjective clause.

The book is on the table. + which I like

The man is here. + who wants the book

4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):

The book which I like is on the table.

The man who wants the book is here.

---

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a verb.
WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:

The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =

The man whose wallet I found is happy.

The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =

The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.

WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted. Here is an example with when:

I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=

I will never forget the day when I graduated.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

I will never forget the day on which I graduated.

I will never forget the day that I graduated.

I will never forget the day I graduated.

WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:

The building is new. + He works in the building. =

The building where he works is new.

The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:

The building in which he works is new.

The building which he works in is new.

The building that he works in is new.

The building he works in is new.

---

D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:

People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.

2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:

Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.

---

E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0

People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)

People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)

Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)

Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)

2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)

People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)

Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)

Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)

Adverb Clauses

Introduction

---

An adverb may be a single word such as quickly, here or yesterday (see the page Adverbs), or a phrase such as the day before yesterday or to see my mother (see the page Adverb Phrases). However, adverbs can also be clauses, containing a subject and a full verb. This page will explain the basic types of adverb clauses (sometimes called "adverbial clauses") and how to recognize them. Adverbs, adverb phrases, and adverb clauses Look at these sentences: I saw the movie yesterday. I saw the movie on Friday. I saw the movie before I left for Calgary. In the first sentence, "yesterday" is a one-word adverb, "on Friday" is an adverb phrase, and "before I left for Calgary" is an adverb clause. All of them answer the question "When?", but the adverb clause has a subject ("I") and a full verb ("left"). It is introduced by "before", so it is a dependent clause. This means that it cannot stand alone: "Before I left for Calgary" would not be a full sentence. It needs a main clause ("I saw the movie"). An adverb clause, then, is a dependent clause that does the same job as an adverb or an adverb phrase. Types of adverb clause There are many types of adverb clauses. Here are some examples of the most common types: Type Question answered Example Place Where? Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft software. Time When? After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market. Cause Why? (What caused this?) I didn't call her because I'm shy. Purpose Why? (What was the reason for doing this?) She took a computer course so that she could get a better job. Concession Why is this unexpected? Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store clerk. Condition Under what conditions? If you save your money, you will be able to go to college. As you can see from the examples above, most adverb clauses can be recognized because they are introduced by a particular word or phrase (such as "when", "so that", etc.). These words and phrases are called subordinating conjunctions, and there are many of them, including these: Subordination conjunctions after, before, until, while, because, since, as, so that, in order that, if, unless, whether, though, although, even though, where

A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and condition. (See Conditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)

---

B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:

Billy couldn’t swim.

He jumped off the pier. (contrast)

2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make dependent:

Although Billy couldn’t swim

He jumped off the pier.

3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important. When the adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually separated by a comma:

Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.

When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:

Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.

---

C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:

Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as

Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that

Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while

Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the event (that). See Conditional Sentences.

---

D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:

After he took lessons, George could swim well.

George could swim well after he took lessons.

Because he couldn’t swim, Billy drowned.

Billy drowned because he couldn’t swim.

Although he isn’t interested in food, Fred works as a cook.

Fred works as a cook although he isn’t interested in food.

If you want to write well, you must practice.

You must practice if you want to write well.