Lecture 1.
THE SENTENCE
Grammar is the structural system of a language. The English grammar is organized into five ranks; The Sentence, The Clause, The Phrase, The Word and The Morpheme.
The Sentence is the highest unit that is normally treated in grammar. It consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase, the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme.
A Sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. The main parts of the sentence are subject and predicate. Ex: John came. ( subject and predicate) But the object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifiers are secondary parts of the sentence.
2. Traditionally, sentences are classified as simple, compound, or complex according to their internal clause composition. A Sentence consisting of one clause is a simple sentence.
Ex: The delegation arrived at the city yesterday.
Clauses are units that, like Sentences, can be analyzed in terms of constituents functioning as subject, verb, direct object, etc.
A Compound Sentence consists of two or more clauses at the same grammatical level. Each of the Clauses is a main clause, and typically each could be an independent sentence:
Ex: The agreement was signed, and the businessmen left Ulaanbaatar.
It has only been a week and I feel lonesome without you.
A Complex Sentence contains a subordinate clause as one of its constituents. In the Complex sentence [4] the subordinate clause functions as a direct object of the verb understood. The clause is introduced by the subordinator that;
Ex: The letter that I received from my father is very important
Types of the sentence
We can distinguish four types of sentences with respect to their major uses in communication:
A) Declarative Sentence. – My son is good at music.
B) Interrogative Sentence. – When did you come?
C) Imperative Sentence. – Close the door, please.
D) Exclamatory Sentence. – How well he sings!
Declaratives are the most common type. They are also the basic type, in that the others can be most easily described by their differences from declaratives. Declarative Sentence makes a statement, usually ends with a period but can end with an exclamation mark. This type of sentence is the most frequently used in speaking and writing. It is divided affirmative sentences and negative sentences. Structure of the affirmative (positive) sentence is S+V (in normal order).
Ex: We shall plant some trees in front of our house soon.
In some case they can be structured in inverted order. Ex: In the distance lay the beautiful park where the roses could be seen like a silky velvet canopy.
Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative Sentence asks a question, ends with a question mark. There are four kinds of interrogative Sentences.
1. Special question. – Where did you graduate from?
2. General question. – Do you subscribe to periodicals?
3. Disjunctive question. – Will you phone me or will you come to my office?
4. Tag question. – it is really quiet around here, isn’t it?
The two major types of interrogatives are yes –no questions and wh- questions. Yes no questions are generally intended to elicit the reply yes or no:
[1] Do you always work very quickly.
[2] have you got an Uncle Victor
[3] Would you quarrel with that
[4] Can you remember how you felt when you heard that she died
[5] Are there any other matters arising
[6] Is this call for maturity amongst our politicians and communicators native.
The response may be more informative than a simple yes or no:
[7] A: Do you drink quite a lot of it
B: Use it as a mixer for my uhm, lemonade and lime lemon lime and someone introduced it to me the other day
The word order in yes –no questions differs from that in declaratives. In declaratives the subject comes before the verb, as in the declarative corresponding to [2]:
[2a] You have got an Uncle Victor.
In the yes-no question [2] the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject you. This change is subject – operator inversion, the operator generally being the first or only auxiliary. If the question does not have an auxiliary, do is inserted as a dummy auxiliary, as in [1]. For Example, the yes – no question in [8a] corresponds to the declarative in [8]:
[8] It interferes with your life.
[8a] Does it interfere with your life.
Does in [8a] has the appropriate inflection (3rd person singular present tense) corresponding to the inflection of the verb interferes in [8]. The insertion of do in [1] and does in [8a] ensures that the question begins with the sequence verb followed by subject.
Negative questions generally convey the speaker’s expectation that the response should be positive:
[9] isn’t that a little irregular?
[10] Haven’t they got that the wrong way round
[11] Can’t you wait until everybody’s finished having their lunch
[12] Am I not allowed friends any more?
Wh – questions expect a reply that supplies the information that the wh – word indicates as required. They are called wh-questions because the wh- words generally begin with wh-, the exception being how. The wh-word may be a pronoun [13]-[15], an adverb [16] – [21], or a determiner (introducing a noun phrase. [22]:
[13] What made you write them
[14] What did he mean
[15] Who’s next
[16] Uhm but why isn’t it in French
[17] Where did it all begin?
[18] How will this embarrassing confrontation end?
[19] [….] When should the allies according to you cease hostilities
[20] How deep is the snow
[21] And uh how long did that go on for
[22] Which bit do you want to start with first
The wh – word generally at the beginning of the question. If the wh-word or the phrase it is part of is the complement of a preposition, in formal style the preposition moves to the front together with its complement.
[23] First of all to what companies does that scheme apply to?
In less formal style, the preposition remains at the end:
[23a] First of all what companies does that scheme apply to?
The rule of subject – operator inversion applies generally to wh – questions. For example in [24] the direct object what begins the question and is followed by the dummy operator do and the subject you:
[24] What do you think?
However, if the wh-expression is the subject of the sentence, there is no inversion. The normal declarative subject – verb order is retained:
[25] The crucial and fundamental question then arises: Who communicates about the threat and for what purposes?
If the question seeks more than one piece of information, it may contain more than one wh – expression:
[26] Who is sampling who
In the spoken language, the normal subject – verb order is sometimes retained even when the wh-expression is not the subject:
[27] You took which car?
[28] You did what next?
These may occur in an interview in a sequence of abrupt questions, they may be simple requests to repeat information, or they may express disbelief.
In addition to yes – no questions and wh –questions there are alternative questions. Alternative questions offer two or more options for the responses. One type of alternative question resembles a yes –no question [29] –[31] and the other type a wh- question [32] – [33]:
[29] But is that a reflection on them or on us
[30] Do we ask too much or too little of our police
[31] And uh that extrusion would it take place on a flexion injury or an extension injury or could it take place uh on either
[32] What are you doing for the summer, staying in Paris or going home?
[33] Uh which you ask is the more authentic the more mandated by tradition religious moderation religious extremism.
Tag questions
Tag questions are attached to clauses that are not interrogatives. The most common type of tag question is the abbreviated yes – no question:
[1] Your heroines are very much of a type aren’t they
[2] I can’t be sure, can i?
The tag may occur in the middle of a sentence:
[3] So on going back to your to your childhood it was your mother wasn’t it who was the driving force behind all of this behind this sort of intellectual rigour
Tag questions generally consists of an operator followed by a pronoun. The operator echoes the previous auxiliary and the pronoun is co – referential with the previous subject. If there is no previous auxiliary, the dummy operator do is introduced, as with all yes –no questions.
[4] And I think your mum likes company doesn’t she
A positive declarative generally takes a negative tag question [1] and [3] -[4], whereas a negative declarative generally takes a positive tag question [2].
The nuclear tone (distinct pitch movement) on the tag operator may be a rise or a fall. A raise is neutral in attitude, inviting the hearer to decide whether the preceding proposing is true. A fall invites the hearer to agree with the proposing.
Here are some further examples of tag questions:
[5] But it’s understated violence isn’t it. [s1b-048-144]
[6] Yes they’re always thrown in at the deep end aren’t they [s1b-048-153]
[7] He’s not gone has he? [wf-001-30]
[8] There’s another story there, isn’t there? [w2f-001-81]
[9] You don’t mind, do you? [w2f-003-40]
[10] I can write can’t I ?!! [w1b-003-40]
Innit is an occasional informal variant of isn’t it:
[11] […] it’s good news for you though innit […] [s1a-019-320]
[12] Bit cheeky innit
Both the declarative and its tag questions are sometimes positive:
[13] So that’s really unrealistic is it wanting to do to teach English
[14] What’s this funny thing What’s this thing it’s a foil is it.
[15] You’re going to be transcribing all this are you
[16] you’ve marked it have you
This type of tag questions points to a conclusion that the speaker has drawn on the basis of what was previously said or seen.
Tag questions may also be used with imperative [17]-[18] and exclamatives [19]-[20]:
[17] Take a seat. Won’t you ?
[18] Let me have a look, will you ?
[19] What a mess he was in, wasn’t he?
[20] How well she played, didn’t she?
There are several tag questions that have the same form whatever appears in the previous declarative or exclamative . Is it appears to be a recently coined fixed tag.
[21] You mean about Felicity and her achievements is it.
[22] She looks She looks Puerto Pican or something is it.
[23] So you put you put in the sedative is it
Some well-established fixed tag are exemplified below:
[24] So you’re not coming in right
[25] Well that the hell eh
[26] it must be peculiarly disconcerting, don’t you think, to be left for someone entirely different from oneself?
Imperative Sentence
Second person imperatives – the typical and by far the most frequent imperatives – generally do not have a subject, but you is implied as subject :
[1] Just look at the beautiful scenery here
Never lecture with animals or children and never ever try to do chemistry experiments live
[3] As for whatever I said on the phone about our relationship, well if you can remember any of it still please forget it.
[4] Stir the spices into the meat, and season with salt and pepper.
You can be added either for contrast or for some kind of emphasis (entreaty or warning);
[5] You pay now and I’ll pay next time.
[6] You tell me.
Occasionally, third person subjects occur:
[7] Nobody say anything.
[8] Those without letters from their parents raise their hands.
First and third person imperatives are formed with let. Let may be a main verb (‘allow’), but let’s must be the imperative auxiliary.
[9] Uhm let me find you something ethnic
[10] Let me put it this way
[11] Let’s have a closer look at some of those manoeuvres
[12] Let’s get really drunk.
[13] Let us be clear, though, that a mature attitude to communications about national identity and international threat is possible.
[14] Now, let me say again that is not a bad record by the police
[15] The motto of the market is ‘ Let the buyer beware .
Do is placed before the imperative verb or auxiliary to make it less abrupt and more persuasive:
[16] Do bear in mind that unit values, and their income can fall as well as rise.
[17] Do come in.
[18] Do let’s have another game.
Don’t or do not is placed initially to negate second person and third person imperative sentences:
[19] But don’t underestimate the problems
[20] Don’t be intimidated by vehicles following too close behind
[21] Do not hesitate to contact me if you need any more information.
[22] Don’t let anybody in except me
First person imperatives may be negated simply by inserting not after the pronoun:
[23] Oh let’s not get touchy touchy
[24] Let me not fall into temptation.
Alternatively, don’t is inserted before let’s or let me (especially in British English) or after let’s (especially in American English):
[25] Don’t let’s tell the police
[26] Don’t let me think about it.
[27] Let’s don’t tell anyone.
Explanative Sentences
Explanative sentences begin with what or how. What introduces noun phrases. Otherwise, how is used.
[1] What strong words you use.
[2] What an idea you’ve got
[3] And what an opportunity this is for the youngster
[4] What a star you are – as you would say!
[5] How she how she talks
[6] How clever he is
[7] How sweet they were
[8] How well she plays.
Like the interrogative wh-phrase , the explanative phrase is fronted. Otherwise, the word order is that of declaratives. Unlike questions, there is no subject – operator inversion. For example, the declaratives corresponding to [1] and [6] are;
[1a] You use such strong words.
[6a] He is so clever.
Such in [1a] is a determiner introducing a noun phrase, and so in [6a] is a premodifier of an adjective and can also premodify an adverb. Like suh in [1a] and so in [6a] , what and how are intensifiers. In the absence of evaluative expressions in the context they may be interpreted as conveying either a high degree or a low degree. Thus, what an idea in [2] may be interpreted as ‘ an excellent idea’ or as ‘a terrible idea’, Similarly, how she plays may be interpreted as ‘she plays excellently’ or ‘she plays badly’.
Exclamatives are often abbreviated to just the exclamative phrase:
[9] What a shame
[10] What an admission from an actor.
[11] How stupid
[12] How nice for you
In the following example, the that –clause is subordinate to the abbreviated exclamatory phrase How wonderful:
[13] How wonderful that this man has gotten a position in a university to help undo all the silly things that secretaries do when arranging luncheons, meetings, etc.
Positive and Negative Sentences
Sentences are either positive or (less commonly) negative. The most frequent method of negating sentences is to insert not or the contracted form n’t in the verb phrase:
[1] He would not stay long.
[2] Such communication was not part of the proceedings.
[3] The countries around the world do not fit into neat and precise categories of climate and weather.
[4] Well, that bit wasn’t true, but he certainly didn’t go to the premiere.
Like questions , negative sentences require an operator. Not is positioned after the operator [1]- [3], and n’t is attached to the operator.
In [1] the operator is the first –and, in this instance, only –auxiliary (would); it is the main verb was in [2]; and it is the dummy operator do in [3]. In the two clauses of [4] n’t is attached to the operators was and did. As [4] demonstrates, negation may apply to more than one clause in a sentence.
In negative questions, contracted n’t attached to the operator and therefore comes before the subject [5], whereas not generally follows the subject [6]-[8];
[5] Listen can’t we do this at some other time
[6] [……] can we not have his forecast of the next year the fourth quarter
[7] Does novel –writing not come easily to you
[8] Why did they not speak out?
But not may also occasionally come between the operator and the subject:
[9] Do not the police really remain as to many they appeared in nineteen eighty –one to have become a white male force encased in technology
Sentence may be negative because of negative words other that not:
[10] Things never work out the way we would like them to.
[11] At the time of the original meeting nobody had any idea of what would happen.
[12] There’s no surer way to lose a good friend than to marry her.
[13] However, I have heard nothing formally.
In standard English, two negative words occasionally occur in the same sentence (or clause), but in that case they make a positive:
[14] None of the countries have no political prisoners. (All the countries have some political prisoners)
Non standard dialect use more than one negative to emphasize the negation:
[15] Nobody told me nothing.
[16] WE don’t want any, either.
The equivalents of [15] and [16] in standard English are:
[15a] Nobody told me anything.
[16b] We don’t want any, either.
Double or multiple negation was common in earlier English, but by the eighteenth century it was no longer acceptable in standard English.
Negation may affect a phrase, without making the sentence negative:
[17] They spent a not unpleasant time at my place, didn’t they?
[18] They were a no doubt shocked to read some of the reports.
[19] I was greeted by none other than the major, and so was my assistant.
A tag question accompanying a negative sentence or clause is typically positive, as in [17a]; some (or its compounds such as somebody) is typically replaced by any (or its compounds) in negative sentences, as in [18a]; so in [19] requires to be replaced by nor or neither in [19a].
[17a] They didn’t spend a pleasant time at my place, did they?
[18a] They were not shocked to read any of the reports.
[19a] I was not greeted by the major, nor was my assistant.
As speech acts, negative sentences are used to deny something that has been mentioned:
[20] A: I mean four of the five sabbaticals were missing.
B: That’s irrelevant
A: It isn’t irrelevant
[21] But he was saying it as if it was my job to do it whereas of course it isn’t
More commonly, what is denied is an assumption that is not made explicit:
[22] A: Rugby, the girls are just treated like a few honorary girls but they’re not integrated
B: At King’s Canterbury they are integrated but it isn’t too free it’s still quite academic.
Negative sentences are also used to reject an offer or invitation:
[23] A: Have some banana bread
B: Look I’m not much of a banana bread eater
Negative yes-no questions generally convey an expectation of a positive response, though the expectation may be frustrated:
[24] Don’t you know snails are a delicacy?
I don’t want to know anything; I said, turning on my side and closing my eyes.
Why don’t you and the abbreviated why not convey advice or offers:
[25] So why don’t you knock on his door.
[26] Other times you say hey look I mean there’s no point in competing why don’t you come in with us
[27] Why don’t you have some Guinness
[28] We are happy to give a randomly selected jury power over the life4 or death of individuals, so why not give a similarly randomly selected panel power over the nation?
Active and Passive Sentences
An Active Sentence contains an object as one of its constituents. Active Sentences can generally be made passive. The changes required by the transformation of active to passive are illustrated in the contrast of active with passive [1a]:
[1] One of the lecturers recommende3d us to do this at the university.
[1a] We were recommended to do this at the university by one of the lecturers
Some of the changes affect the verb phrase. An additional auxiliary (generally the auxiliary be) is added, which for recommended is the same form as the past. The active object us becomes the passive subject we, the active subject is moved to the end, where it is introduced by the preposition by.
Get is used less commonly as a passive auxiliary:
[2] And just under half get invited to staff meetings
[3] [….] and that’s why I got sent home the night when other people didn’t turn up and ended up going to Cambridge
A valid reason for resorting to the passive is that it is then possible to omit any mention of the agent (or cause) of the action, which is expressed in the active by the subject. Indeed, the by – phrase referring to the agent is commonly omitted, as in [2] and [3] above and [4] below:
[4] […] I’m not trained as a , as a therapist
The usual motivation for omitting mention of the agent is that identification of the agent is irrelevant or intended to appear so. The identity of the agent may also be unknown, as in [5:
[5] Oh she’s called Jennifer
Or the agent may not be a specific person:
[6] I think it’s how you’re introduced to them
Similarly in [7], where it refers to a film:
[7] It’s set in the future
In scientific and technical writing it is quite common for writer to resort to the agentless passive to avoid frequent use of the personal pronouns I and we and thereby maintain a more impersonal style:
[8] For observation by bright field and interference microscopy urediniospores scraped from erumpent pustules and macerated or hand-sectioned telia were mounted in lactic acid and heated to boiling point.
[9] This approach was therefore considered and found to be far more attractive.
The agentive passive can be used to good purpose, despite the availability of the more common active.
[10] The story was inspired by a tip-off from an officer of the SB (the Polish secret police, which had been harassing Gowing for a few months ), that Soviet hardliner, backed by the KGB, were trying to depose General Jaruzelski.
The passive is preferable in [10] for two reasons. First, the active would produce a clumsy un balanced sentence in which the part before the verb was much longer than the object. (the story):
[10a] A tip-off an officer of the SB(the Polish secret police, which had been harassing Gowing for a afew months ), that Soviet hardliners, backed by the KGB, were trying to depose General Jaruzelski inspired the story.
Secondly, the story refers to what has been mentioned before and comes naturally at the beginning of the sentence as a link to the new information about the tip-off. In [11] Kim Philby is placed at the end of the passive which- clause as the climax.
[11] It is noteworthy that the section in which Greene worked was that of the Iberian sub-section V of the SIS, which was controlled by none other than Kim Philby.
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